Project Schedule And Budgeting

Project Schedule And Budgeting Project management provides an integrated framework for project organisation, planning and control which is designed to ensure the timely and cost effective productions of all products and services and maintain high quality standard of products and services to satisfy all stakeholders interest. A process approach to project management define step by step procedures that a project manager need to take to effectively manage the project and satisfy all stakeholders interest. For instance, the Risk Management Process will tell how to identify, analyse and monitor project risks more effectively. It also describes the roles and responsibilities of each team member, when taking part in project risk management. A process approach starts with initiations and then goes through planning, implementation, monitoring and control and then finalisation of the project. So a project has a life where it starts and then after a finite period of time it ends. Some projects are small that only matter from some hours whereas some last for years. Because need for specialisation, most of the projects needs multidisciplinary teams. These teams members are most of the time belong to the parent organisation but some of the work are being done by subcontractors, consultants or partners. Organisations that are involved in the projects are sometime find it very difficult to coordinate with each others and this is the big challenge for the project manager to cope with this problem. Time pressure , limited budgets , tight cash flows and uncertainty always require project manager to make trade-offs between these factors with the implicit goals of balancing risks and benefits. Skyscraper (Burj khalifa) World Tallest building in Dubai Burj khalifa is the world tallest building in Dubai with 164 floors. This is an iconic building with the end of the world architecture design and wonder of steel building. With 900 rooms and home of many indoor entertainments, this project was a big challenge. After 6 years, this dream comes true with the silver tower shaped stick standing in the heart of U.A.E. A Process Approach A process is a group of activities that are designed to transform an input into an output. This transformation consists of the data and information, decision making and implementation and control. Firstly, design of a process must address about the data. What can be the data resources, how the data should be collected, stored, retrieved and presented to decision makers. Secondly, the presentation required to decision makers should be clear and transparent. When a real problem is too complicated to solve or some information is missing, simplifying assumption are made and model is developed. Lastly, data and model integration should be used. Data from the database should be integrated with the help of model and then information generated from the model by using data of data based should be presented to the decision makers. A Project process have different stages involve in it.Those are (1) Initiation (2) planning and control (3) closure (2) 3.1 Initiation Every project has a start point. Before start of the project, interest of certain stakeholders is discussed and need for project is finalised. There will be a variety of ideas and opinions about the purpose and scope of the project, what the final product of the project will be, and how the project will be carried out. The Project Initiation Stage is concerned with taking these ideas and intentions and developing them into a formal, planned, resourced and funded project. Burj khalifa was decided by the ruler of Dubai Sheik Muhammad. It was just a theme in the mind of His Highness Mr.Muhammad.Later that theme was discussed and decided to build that building(project).Project is not started yet. But these are the interest of certain stakeholders (3) 3.2 Planning This stage starts with the handing over of project to the organisation or individual who will manage it. Step 1: Project Kick Off The project was kicked off with the handover of assignment to EMAAR (Abu Dahbis biggest construction Company) Step 2: Project Objective Scope In order to define a project in this way, it is first necessary to clearly and explicitly define what the project is intended to achieve and what its scope of interest will be. By defining this first, a benchmark is created for assessing the quality of what is actually produced at the end of the project. So this project was discussed with the members of the government to Dubai to the part of recognition of Dubai as an international business city. The Scope of the project was high as this was $1.5 billion and it was supposed to be an icon for Dubai. The objective of the project was to present Dubai as an international city in front of world. It is also necessary to develop a process by which the project objectives can be achieved. Work Breakdown Structure is a technique to draw the structure of the process that needs to be done in the project. A WBS diagram expresses the project scope in simple graphic terms. The diagram starts with a single box or other graphic at the top to represen t the entire project. The project is then divided into components, with related activities listed under them. Generally, the upper components are the deliverables and the lower level elements are the activities that create the deliverables. (4) (2) http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/pmbok.html (3) http://burj-khalifa.eu/featured/tall-order (4) htttp://www.brighthub.com/office/project-management/articles/2645.aspx Step 3: Project Schedule and Budgeting Project was scheduled to complete in 4 years but it finished in 6 years. Starting time was January 2004 and it was planned to finished in 2008.Its budget was $1.5 billion. There are different tools and technique that can be used to manage schedule and budgeting. One is Gantt chart that is around for many years. These are excellent models for scheduling and for budgeting, and for reporting and presenting and communicating project plans and progress easily and quickly, but as a rule Gantt Charts are not as good as a Critical Path Analysis Flow Diagram for identifying and showing interdependent factors, or for mapping a plan from and/or into all of its detailed causal or contributing elements. Critical Path Analysis is another technique that is being used for the scheduling of the project. This method calculates the minimum completion time for a project along with the possible start and finish times for the project activities. Indeed, many texts and managers regard critical path schedul ing as the only usable and practical scheduling procedure. Computer programs and algorithms for critical path scheduling are widely available and can efficiently handle projects with thousands of activities. (5) Step 4: Project Organization A South Korean company South Korean company, Samsung Engineering Construction, which also did work on the PETRONAS twin towers and Taipei 101. Step 5: Project Control Procedures Control of every stage of the process is important as this will affect the next stage. This process will typically involve carrying out a number of tasks and producing a number of products during the course of the project. The tasks produce the products. For clarity of purpose and for control reasons it is useful to arrange these tasks in a top down structure, which progressively specify the required work in more detail. Burj khalifa tower project was divided into several small chunks and then each stage was control with a different procedure. Step 6: Project Initiation Stage Assessment Initial stage also defines what resources and associated time commitment are required to carry out the project. The work breakdown structure provides a basis from which this estimation can be carried out. The resource and time commitment can be used to calculate an end date for the project and an estimate of its cost. Resources needed for Burj khalifa was important to manage the flow of work. Steel was used in a very big amount which was imported from India. As the land of Dubai is mostly sand and for the safety purpose, the basement was filled with the soil from other part of the world. The overall project schedule is not in detail to enable the allocation of actual resources to tasks, or to control progress. It is very important to produce a more detailed plan for these purposes. This detailed plan is only produced for the next stage of the project, usually covering an elapsed time of two to four months. (5)http://pmbook.ce.cmu.edu/10_Fundamental_Scheduling_Procedures.html The way the project is managed and executed is the key to its success. The involvement of the right people for data capture and decision making is also very important. It is necessary to recruit these people at the start of the project and to define the project organization structure. It is also necessary to establish the procedures that will be used by the people in the Project Organization Structure to carry out and control the project work. Step 7: Business Case Finally, in order to establish a resourced and funded project, it is necessary to establish a clear and convincing business case for the project. This business case should be reviewed, and hopefully accepted by management. The business case will identify the projected benefits of meeting the objectives of the project, and balance these against the costs and risks associated with realizing these benefits. The business case can also be used as a benchmark to compare against actual results, costs and benefits in order to assess the ultimate success of the project. The Project Initiation stage is described here as a sequence of steps. In reality, once the objective and scope have been defined, many of these steps occur in parallel, and the step products are developed iteratively, since there are many dependencies between the steps. It is necessary to plan the Project Initiation stage, albeit in an informal manner. Therefore it is important to create a Project Initiation Kick off Plan sch eduling the activities and resources. (6) 3.3 Execution During this stage of the project, the focus should be on carrying out the work planned for the stage there are many project management activities that need to be carried out in addition to the project work itself .These activities are arranged into a series of steps. A step to initiate the stage, steps that are carried out on an on-going basis throughout the stage, steps that are carried out at the end of the stage and a step that is only carried out in an exception situation. To control the follow of the process and to manage activities during the process stages, project manager should monitor and control project progress, through the use of regular checkpoints involving the project team and formal reviews with project board. Also, quality of the product and changes in the baselined products are also managed. There can be many issues that arose during the processes and those issues should be removed. The constructions of Burj Khalifa was not easy as the building moves on, the filling of concrete into the walls was a problem. The vertical method was used to put the concrete from the top. It was a risky as well as technical challenge. Also, the use of heavy machinery from the top and how to fix that machinery on the top was also an issue of safety. Several of the activities will result in changes to the stage schedule. The Stage Manager should ensure that these changes are made smoothly, and that these changes are communicated to all concerned. Any changes made to individual work assignments should be confirmed in the regular checkpoint meetings. If there as any issue arises during any stage then stage plan will be changed to manage that deviation. (6)http://dijest.com/tools/pmworkbench/pmtemplates/pmoredocs/pmprocess.htm 3.4 Monitoring and Control The documents of all the processed and stages should be managed and update regularly. Electronic and hardcopy file structures are set up to consistently maintain and administer project management and development products. All documentation procedures for the stage should be established and the team should understand what these are for, how they are used, and what their individual responsibilities are. Emaar establish a database for the Burj Khalifa project to monitor all the process and to discuss it with all the management involved in the process to show what is going on. This enables the project manager and other staff to communicate each other more precisely and take appropriate action if there is any deviation. The whole project was broken down into small projects and whole team was divided into small project teams who control these small projects. A Project Board of Burj Khalifa is the executive authority of a project. It authorizes the project to proceed, approve any change or if possible stop the project. It enters in to a contract with the Project Manager through the Project Initiation, Project and Stage Plans, to provide the executive support and resources required to execute a project which will deliver the specified products to schedule and budget. The Project Board should view the project as an investment intended to yield gain business benefits. Failure to achieve those benefits reflects as much upon the control exercised by the Project Board as it does on the execution of responsibilities by the Project Manager and Project Team. The Project Board meet at the end of each stage, including Project Initiation, to review the achievements of the concluded stage and authorize proceeding to the next. Project Manager schedule standing Project Board meetings at the beginning of the project. Confirm the logistics of the next mee ting, namely date, time and conference room. Also, project manager report to the Project Board the results of the Post Implementation Review.This assess the performance of the new system against the objectives planned. It also identifies and captures metrics and factors that will improve the development process.PERT analysis is used to monitor the activities along with Gantt chart and CPA (Critical Path analysis) 3.5 Project Closure Every project has a life. It starts and then after some time it ends. All good things must come to an end. Projects are designed to end at some point that is the nature of project work. Burj Khalifa project started in Jan 2004 and it finished in Jan 2010.To gain maximum benefit from a project, the project went through a formal close down.There may be some outstanding work that needs to be carried out on the products of the project.The project will have been using several lists and tracking mechanisms, such as the change request log and the issues log.These need to be formally closed.The members of the Project Organization will have learnt how to carry out this type of project better in the future, and will have a better idea of how long the various activities on this type of project will take to do.These learnings should be captured for future use.There will be a lot of information generated during a project, and this will have been stored with varying degrees of formality by the me mbers of the Project Organization.This information needs to be formally filed away for possible future use.By this time in the project,all project work should have been completed, and the products of the project should have been accepted by the customers.It is possible however, that the final products do not fully meet the original objectives and requirements.Before the project is completely finished, any outages in the products should be identified and evaluated.If it is decided that the outages need to be fixed, it will be necessary to set up a mechanism to carry this out.This may be by a new project,or a maintenance program.Make sure that the evaluation includes an evaluation against the Business Success Criteria that were defined during the Project Initiation Stage.However, it is also important to evaluate the overall quality of the final product in respect of its ability to meet current requirements.Review the changes that are recommended to the process used on the project. Exa mine each change and decide if it is likely to apply to future projects of this type.Change the standard process based on these reasons.(7) Project in which Scheduling is not important As all the projects have an integral part i.e. scheduling. Scheduling is an important part of any project as this break down the work in small chunks that are easy to manage. But there are some projects in which scheduling are not important. For example the project of US war with Afghanistan. War is started but there is not set schedule of procedding.Plans are changing within an hours or days but no clear schedule .There are no stages involve as everything happening as the change of weather. Although this project has a starting point and there will be an ending point but there is not set process for that. Work Breakdown Structure A challenging project is made manageable by first breaking it down into individual components in the work breakdown structure, or the WBS.This is a hierarchical structure that shows that main part and then its subparts.This is divided into small chunks that can easily be managed by the management as compared to whole big project. Such a structure defines tasks that can be completed independently of other tasks, facilitating resource allocation, assigning responsibilities to different people, and measurement and control of the project. Each organization uses its own terminology for Work Breakdown Structure components according to their own needs. For example, some organizations refer to different levels as main tasks, sub-tasks, and work packages, as shown below. Others use the different terms phases, entries, and activities. The WBS may be organized around deliverables or phases of the project life cycle. Higher levels in the structure generally are performed by groups. The lowest level in the hierarchy often comprises activities performed by individuals, though a WBS that emphasizes deliverables does not necessarily specify activities. (7) http://theconstructor.org/structures/burj-khalifa-dubai-opening-ceremony/1003/ The breaking down of a project into its component parts facilitates resource allocation and the assignment of individual responsibilities. Care should be taken to use a proper level of detail when creating the WBS. On the one extreme, a very high level of detail is likely to result in micro-management. On the other extreme, the tasks may become too large to manage effectively. Defining tasks so that their duration is between several days and a few months works well for most projects.(8) Below is the work breakdown structure used in construction and related to Burj khalifa 8 (8)http://www.netmba.com/operations/project/wbs/ (9)Case study about scope-cost-time integrated model with work breakdown structure http://cife.stanford.edu/online.publications/WP115.pdf Gantt charts Gantt Charts are very useful project management tools that is used mostly in scheduling and budgeting. The Gantt chart is named after US engineer and consultant Henry Gantt (1861-1919) who devised the technique in the 1910s. Gantt charts are excellent models for scheduling and for budgeting, and for reporting and presenting and communicating project plans and progress quickly. Gantt chart can be constructed by using MS Excel. Every activity has a separate bar. Create a time-line for the duration of the project.Colour can be used to show the time blocks to denote type of activity (for example, digging, piling, concreting, finishing, etc.). A Gantt chart can be used to keep track of progress for each activity and how the costs are running. In Burj khalifa project, Gantt chart helps to manage step by step activity. The time blocks around can be moved to report on actuals versus planned, and to re-schedule, and to create new plan updates. Costs columns can show plan and actuals and variances, and calculate whatever totals, averages, ratios, etc., that you need. Gantt Charts are probably the most flexible and useful of all project management tools, but remember they do not very easily or obviously show the im portance and inter-dependence of related parallel activities, and they wont obviously show the necessity to complete one task before another can begin. Project planning tools naturally become used also for subsequent project reporting, presentations, etc., and you will make life easier for everyone if you use formats that people recognize and find familiar. (10) Critical Path Analysis Critical path analysis / method are an effective way to analyse complex projects.CPA represents the critical set of activities to complete a project. Critical path helps us to focus on important activities which are critical to run the project. Once the critical activities are identified, we can devote good resources and prioritize the same accordingly. CPA also gives us a very good basis for scheduling and monitoring for progress.One of the most important thing it does is allows the project manager to concentrate on important activities. This method takes the longest time then the other methods. (10) http://www.businessballs.com/project.htm (11) Mind Mapping Case Study to Support Gantt chart method http://www.matchware.com/en/forms/mindview2%20case%20studies/case_history_form.pdf CPM models the activities and events of a project as a network. Activities are presented as nodes on the network and events that signify the beginning or ending of activities are presented with lines between the nodes. The above is an example of a CPM network diagram. (13) Success of Burj Khalifa Project Burj Khalifa was not just a project. Its a milestone in the history of Dubai which enhances the projection of Dubai in the modern world. As we land on Dubai airport, this tower welcomes you with its shinning image from Arabian Sea. Its a design of human intelligence which satisfied all its stakeholders with nothing below then positivity. As this is the tallest tower, the gravity was an issue which was solved with the design. The success of the project is that it is the only highest man made tower on the earth which was completed finally in 2010. Secondly, the world famous designer ARMANI opens its store in the tower. Also, the world famous business is going to open their offices in that tower. Summary Project management of a powerful field with its knowledge of managing from a small activity to massive project.This field is very interesting in the sense that it provides step by step approach to finish a particular job. I researched many case studies from a construction to the Deli Olympics, from Football World cup to Cricket World cup events. I did not mention these events in my assignments but I try to find similarities of managing these projects. Although there are not much difference between the methods used in these events but there are certain requirements that are required for a particular projects. I am working as a manager in a retain chain and I observe these methods of project in my work indirectly. I am very much interested in project manager in my future and I found these approaches useful for the implications of my job role. I understand from this module that as a project manager how can I initiate, plane, control, monitor and close my projects. Before this module, I was not aware of the role of project manager. I was taking this job as a normal person job that just purchases material and give it to employees and just look around. But after understanding this module and its different aspects, I come to the point that project management is an important field in every aspects of human life from inside a living house to an international consignment. The interest in this role to me is the different stages those are involved in this field. As a project manager the changes that I will make in my approach are Documents all the activities Work Break down into small chunks (12) Case Study of baking a loaf of bread to support Critical path analysis http://tutor2u.net/business/production/critical-path-analysis.htm (13)http://www.netmba.com/operations/project/cpm/ Manage each stage separately Communicate my plan with my staff effectively Evaluate each activity Monitor each activity Control of the workflow Reference http://www.gizmag.com/go/3555/picture/7485/ http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/pmbok.html http://burj-khalifa.eu/featured/tall-order http://www.brighthub.com/office/project-management/articles/2645.aspx http://pmbook.ce.cmu.edu/10_Fundamental_Scheduling_Procedures.html http://dijest.com/tools/pmworkbench/pmtemplates/pmoredocs/pmprocess.htm http://theconstructor.org/structures/burj-khalifa-dubai-opening-ceremony/1003/ http://www.netmba.com/operations/project/wbs/ Case study about scope-cost-time integrated model with work breakdown structure http://cife.stanford.edu/online.publications/WP115.pdf http://www.businessballs.com/project.htm Mind Mapping Case Study http://www.matchware.com/en/forms/mindview2%20case%20studies/case_history_form.pdf Baking a Loaf of Bread Case Study http://tutor2u.net/business/production/critical-path-analysis.htm http://www.netmba.com/operations/project/cpm/

Moral Status of Animals in the Ancient World

Moral status of animals in the ancient world Main articles: Moral status of animals in the ancient world and Human exceptionalism Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam. The Book of Genesis echoed earlier ideas about divine hierarchy, and that God and humankind share traits, such as intellect and a sense of morality, that non-humans do not possess. Modern views of humans treatment of animals can be traced back to the ancient world. The idea that the use of animals by humans—for food and clothing is morally acceptable, springs from many sources. There is a hierarchy based on the theological concept of â€Å"dominion,† in Genesis (1:20-28), where Adam is given â€Å"dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. † Although the concept of dominion need not entail property rights, it has, over the centuries, been interpreted to imply some form of ownership. 8][10] Other parts of the Bible strongly protest the abuse of animals, such as Balaam and the talking donkey in Numbers 22:28-33 [11] or the merciful command in Deuteronomy 25:4 to allow an Ox to feed whilst it treads the grain [12]. In the New Testament, the dove is used to represent the Holy Spirit of God in Matthew 3:16[13] and in Revelations 14:1,17:14 and John 1:29,[14] Jesus is described as a lamb; these two animal s are still depicted in some churches with respect[15][16], thus showing ancient influence in modern religion. At the same time, animals have been considered inferior because they lack rationality and language, and as such are worthy of less consideration than humans, or even none. [8][10]. Aristotle considered animals to have no rationality, but that they had a soul. [edit]17th century: Animals as automata [edit]1641: Descartes Further information: Dualism (philosophy of mind) and Scientific Revolution Descartes' remains influential regarding how the issue of animal consciousness—or as he saw it, lack thereof—should be approached. 17] â€Å"[Animals] eat without pleasure, cry without pain, grow without knowing it; they desire nothing, fear nothing, know nothing. — Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715)[18]† The year 1641 was significant for the idea of animal rights. The great influence of the century was the French philosopher, Rene Descartes (1596–1650), whose Meditations was published that year, and whose ideas about animals informed attitudes well into the 21st century. 17] Writing during the scientific revolution—a revolution of which he was one of the chief architects—Descartes proposed a mechanistic theory of the universe, the aim of which was to show that the world could be mapped out without allusion to subjective experience. The senses deceive, he wrote in the First Meditation in 1641, and â€Å"it is prudent never to trust wholly those who have deceived us even once. [19] â€Å"Hold then the same view of the dog which has lost his master, which has sought him in all the thoroughfares with cries of sorrow, which comes into the house troubled and restless, goes downstairs, goes upstairs; goes from room to room, finds at last in his study the master he loves, and betokens his gladness by soft whimpers, frisks, and caresses. There are barbarians who seize this dog, who so greatly surpasses man in fidelity and friendship, and nail him down to a table and dissect him alive, to show you the mesaraic veins! You disc over in him all the same organs of feeling as in yourself. Answer me, mechanist, has Nature arranged all the springs of feeling in this animal to the end that he might not feel? — Voltaire (1694–1778)[20] † His mechanistic approach was extended to the issue of animal consciousness. Mind, for Descartes, was a thing apart from the physical universe, a separate substance, linking human beings to the mind of God. The non-human, on the other hand, are nothing but complex automata, with no souls, minds, or reason. They can see, hear, and touch, but they are not, in any sense, conscious, and are unable to suffer or even to feel pain. 17] In the Discourse, published in 1637, Descartes wrote that the ability to reason and use language involves being able to respond in complex ways to â€Å"all the contingencies of life,† something that animals clearly cannot do. He argued from this that any sounds animals make do not constitute language, but are simply automatic responses to external stimuli. [21] [edit]1635, 1641, 1654: Fi rst known laws protecting animals Richard Ryder writes that the first known legislation against animal cruelty in the English-speaking world was passed in Ireland in 1635. It prohibited pulling wool off sheep, and the attaching of ploughs to horses' tails, referring to â€Å"the cruelty used to beasts,† which Ryder writes is probably the earliest reference to this concept in the English language. [22] In 1641, the year Descartes' Meditations was published, the first legal code to protect domestic animals in North America was passed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. [23] The colony's constitution was based on The Body of Liberties by the Reverend Nathaniel Ward (1578–1652), a lawyer, Puritan clergyman, and University of Cambridge graduate, originally from Suffolk, England. 24] Ward listed the â€Å"rites† the Colony's general court later endorsed, including rite number 92: â€Å"No man shall exercise any Tirrany or Crueltie toward any bruite Creature which are usuallie kept for man's use. † Historian Roderick Nash writes that, at the height of Descartes' influence in Europe, it is significant that the early New Englanders crea ted a law that implied animals were not unfeeling automata. [25] The Puritans passed animal protection legislation in England too. Katheen Kete of Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut writes that animal welfare laws were passed in 1654 as part of the ordinances of the Protectorate—the government under Oliver Cromwell, which lasted 1653–1659—during the English Civil War. Cromwell disliked blood sports, particularly cockfighting, cock throwing, dog fighting, as well as bull baiting and bull running, both said to tenderize the meat. These could frequently be seen in towns, villages, in fairgrounds, and became associated for the Puritans with idleness, drunkenness, and gambling. Kete writes that the Puritans interpreted the dominion of man over animals in the Book of Genesis to mean responsible stewardship, rather than ownership. The opposition to blood sports became part of what was seen as Puritan interference in people's lives, which became a leitmotif of resistance to them, Kete writes, and the animal protection laws were overturned during the Restoration, when Charles II was returned to the throne in 1660. [26] Bull baiting remained lawful in England for another 162 years, until it was outlawed in 1822. edit]1693: Locke John Locke argued against animal cruelty, but only because of the effect it has on human beings. Against Descartes, the British philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) argued, in Some Thoughts Concerning Education in 1693, that animals do have feelings, and that unnecessary cruelty toward them is morally wrong, but—echoing Thomas Aquinas—the right not to be so harmed adhered either to the animal's owner, or to the person who was being harmed by being cruel, not to the animal itself. Discussing the importance of preventing children from tormenting animals, he wrote: â€Å"For the custom of tormenting and killing of beasts will, by degrees, harden their minds even towards men. â€Å"[27] [edit]18th century: The centrality of sentience, not reason Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued in 1754 that animals are part of natural law, and have natural rights, because they are sentient. [edit]1754: Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) argued in Discourse on Inequality in 1754 that animals should be part of natural law, not because they are rational, but because they are sentient: â€Å"[Here] we put an end to the time-honoured disputes concerning the participation of animals in natural law: for it is clear that, being destitute of intelligence and liberty, they cannot recognize that law; as they partake, however, in some measure of our nature, in consequence of the sensibility with which they are endowed, they ought to partake of natural right; so that mankind is subjected to a kind of obligation even toward the brutes. It appears, in fact, that if I am bound to do no injury to my fellow-creatures, this is less because they are rational than because they are sentient beings: and this quality, being common both to men and beasts, ought to entitle the latter at least to the privilege of not being wantonly ill-treated by the former. [28]† [edit]1785: Kant â€Å"Animals †¦ are there merely as a means to an end. That end is man. — Immanuel Kant[29]† The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), following Augustine, Aquinas, and Locke, opposed the idea that humans have duties toward non-humans. For Kant, cruelty to animals was wrong solely on the grounds that it was bad for humankind. He argued in 1785 that humans have duties only toward other humans, and that â€Å"cruelty to animals is contrary to man's duty to himself, because it deadens in him the feeling of sympathy for their sufferings, and thus a natural tendency that is very useful to morality in relation to other humans is weakened. â€Å"[30] [edit]1789: Bentham Jeremy Bentham: â€Å"The time will come, when humanity will extend its mantle over every thing which breathes† (1781). 31] Four years later, one of the founders of modern utilitarianism, the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), although deeply opposed to the concept of natural rights, argued with Rousseau that it was the ability to suffer, not the ability to reason, that should be the benchmark of how we treat other beings. If rationality were the criterion, many humans, including babies and disabled people, would also have to b e treated as though they were things. 32] He wrote in 1789, just as slaves were being freed by the French, but were still held captive in the British dominions: â€Å"The day has been, I grieve to say in many places it is not yet past, in which the greater part of the species, under the denomination of slaves, have been treated by the law exactly upon the same footing, as, in England for example, the inferior races of animals are still. The day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been witholden from them but by the hand of tyranny. The French have already discovered that the blackness of the skin is no reason a human being should be abandoned without redress to the caprice of a tormentor. It may one day come to be recognized that the number of the legs, the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the os sacrum are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate. What else is it that should trace the insuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason or perhaps the faculty of discourse? But a full-grown horse or dog, is beyond comparison a more rational, as well as a more conversable animal, than an infant of a day or a week or even a month, old. But suppose the case were otherwise, what would it avail? the question is not, Can they reason? , nor Can they talk? but, Can they suffer? [33]† [edit]1792: Thomas Taylor Despite Rousseau and Bentham, the idea that animals did or ought to have rights remained ridiculous. When Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), the British feminist writer, published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, Thomas Taylor (1758—1835), a Cambridge philosopher, responded with an anonymous tract called Vindication of the Rights of Brutes, intended as a reductio ad absurdum. Taylor took Wollstonecraft's arguments, and those of Thomas Paine's Rights of Man (1790), and showed that they applied equally to animals, leading to the conclusion that animals have â€Å"intrinsic and real dignity and worth,† a conclusion absurd enough, in his view, to discredit Wollstonecraft's and Paine's positions entirely. 34] [edit]19th century: Emergence of jus animalium [edit]Legislation The first known prosecution for cruelty to animals was brought in 1822 against two men found beating horses in London's Smithfield Market, where livestock had been sold since the 10th century. They were fined 20 shillings each. Further information: Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822, Cru elty to Animals Act 1835, Cruelty to Animals Act 1849, and Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 â€Å"What could be more innocent than bull baiting, boxing, or dancing? George Canning, British Foreign Secretary in April 1800 in response to a bill to ban bull baiting. [35]† Badger baiting was outlawed in England by the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835. Painting by Henry Thomas Alken, 1824 The 19th century saw an explosion of interest in animal protection, particularly in England. Debbie Legge and Simon Brooman of Liverpool John Moores University wrote that the educated classes became concerned about attitudes toward the old, the needy, children, and the insane, and that this concern was extended to non-humans. Before the 19th century, there had been prosecutions for poor treatment of animals, but only because of the damage to the animal as property. In 1793, for example, John Cornish was found not guilty of maiming a horse after pulling its tongue out, the judge ruling that he could be found guilty only if there was evidence of malice toward the owner. [36] From 1800 onwards, there were several attempts in England to introduce animal welfare or rights legislation. The first was a bill in 1800 against bull baiting, introduced by Sir William Pulteney, and opposed by the Secretary at War, William Windham, on the grounds that it was anti-working class. Another attempt was made in 1802 by William Wilberforce, again opposed by Windham, who said that the Bill was supported by Methodists and Jacobins who wished, for different reasons, to â€Å"destroy the Old English character, by the abolition of all rural sports† and that bulls, when they were in the ascendant in the contest, did not dislike the situation. 37] In 1809, Lord Erskine introduced a bill to protect cattle and horses from malicious wounding, wanton cruelty, and beating, this one opposed by Windham because it would be used against the â€Å"lower orders† when the real culprits would be property owners. [38] Judge Edward Abbott Parry writes that the House of Lords found the proposal so sentimental that they drowned Erskine out with cat calls and cock crowing. [39] [edit]1822: Martin's Act Further information: Badger baiting, Bull baiting, and Cockfighting â€Å"If I had a donkey wot wouldn't go, D' ye think I'd wollop him? No, no, no! But gentle means I'd try, d' ye see, Because I hate all cruelty. If all had been like me, in fact, There'd ha' been no occasion for Martin's Act. — Music hall ditty inspired by the prosecution under Martin's Act of Bill Burns for cruelty to a donkey. [40] † In 1821, the Treatment of Horses bill was introduced by Colonel Richard Martin, MP for Galway in Ireland, but it was lost among laughter in the House of Commons that the next thing would be rights for asses, dogs, and cats. 41] Nicknamed â€Å"Humanity Dick† by George IV, Martin finally succeeded in 1822 with his â€Å"Ill Treatment of Horses and Cattle Bill,† or â€Å"Martin's Act†, as it became known, the world's first major piece of animal protection legislation. It was given royal assent on June 22 that year as An Act to prevent the cruel and improper Treatment of Cattle, and made it an offence, punishable by fines up to five pounds or two months impriso nment, to â€Å"beat, abuse, or ill-treat any horse, mare, gelding, mule, ass, ox, cow, heifer, steer, sheep or other cattle. â€Å"[42] Any citizen was entitled to bring charges under the Act. 43] The Trial of Bill Burns, showing Richard Martin with the donkey in an astonished courtroom, leading to the world's first known conviction for animal cruelty. Legge and Brooman argue that the success of the Bill lay in the personality of â€Å"Humanity Dick,† who was able to shrug off the ridicule from the House of Commons, and whose own sense of humour managed to capture its attention. It was Martin himself who brought the first prosecution under the Act, when he had Bill Burns, a costermonger—a street seller of fruit—arrested for beating a donkey. Seeing in court that the magistrates seemed bored and didn't much care about the donkey, he sent for it, parading its injuries before a reportedly astonished court. Burns was fined, becoming the first person in the world known to have been convicted of animal cruelty. Newspapers and music halls were full of jokes about the â€Å"Trial of Bill Burns,† as it became known, and how Martin had relied on the testimony of a donkey, giving Martin's Act some welcome publicity. [40][43] The trial became the subject of a painting (right), which hangs in the headquarters of the RSPCA in London. 44] Other countries followed suit in passing legislation or making decisions that favoured animals. In 1882, the courts in New York ruled that wanton cruelty to animals was a misdemeanor at common law. [23] In France in 1850, Jacques Philippe Delmas de Grammont succeeded in having the Loi Grammont passed, outlawing cruelty against domestic animals, and leading to years of arguments about whether bu lls could be classed as domestic in order to ban bullfighting. [45] The state of Washington followed in 1859, New York in 1866, California in 1868, Florida in 1889. 46] In England, a series of amendments extended the reach of the 1822 Act, which became the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835, outlawing cockfighting, baiting, and dog fighting, followed by another amendment in 1849, and again in 1876. [edit]1824: Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals â€Å"At a meeting of the Society instituted for the purpose of preventing cruelty to animals, on the 16th day of June 1824, at Old Slaughter's Coffee House, St. Martin's Lane: T F Buxton Esqr, MP, in the Chair, It was resolved: That a committee be appointed to superintend the Publication of Tracts, Sermons, and similar modes of influencing public opinion, to consist of the following Gentlemen: Sir Jas. Mackintosh MP, A Warre Esqr. MP, Wm. Wilberforce Esqr. MP, Basil Montagu Esqr. , Revd. A Broome, Revd. G Bonner, Revd G A Hatch, A E Kendal Esqr. , Lewis Gompertz Esqr. , Wm. Mudford Esqr. , Dr. Henderson. Resolved also: That a Committee be appointed to adopt measures for Inspecting the Markets and Streets of the Metropolis, the Slaughter Houses, the conduct of Coachmen, etc. etc, consisting of the following Gentlemen: T F Buxton Esqr. MP, Richard Martin Esqr. , MP, Sir James Graham, L B Allen Esqr. , C C Wilson Esqr. , Jno. Brogden Esqr. , Alderman Brydges, A E Kendal Esqr. , E Lodge Esqr. , J Martin Esqr. T G Meymott Esqr. A. Broome, Honorary Secretary [40][43] † Further information: Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Richard Martin soon realized that magistrates did not take the M artin Act seriously, and that it was not being reliably enforced. Several members of parliament decided to form a society to bring prosecutions under the Act. The Reverend Arthur Broome, a Balliol man who had recently become the vicar of Bromley-by-Bow, arranged a meeting in Old Slaughter's Coffee House in St. Martin's Lane, a London cafe frequented by artists and actors. [40] The group met on June 16, 1824, and included a number of MPs: Richard Martin, Sir James Mackintosh, Sir Thomas Buxton, William Wilberforce, and Sir James Graham, who had been an MP, and who became one again in 1826. They decided to form a â€Å"Society instituted for the purpose of preventing cruelty to animals,† or the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, as it became known. It determined to send men to inspect the Smithfield Market in the City of London, where livestock had been sold since the 10th century, as well as slaughterhouses, and the practices of coachmen toward their horses. [40] The Society became the Royal Society in 1840, when it was granted a royal charter by Queen Victoria, herself strongly opposed to vivisection. [47][48] [edit]1824: Early examples of direct action Noel Molland writes that, in 1824, Catherine Smithies, an anti-slavery activist, set up an SPCA youth wing called the Bands of Mercy. It was a children's club modeled on the Temperance Society's Bands of Hope, which were intended to encourage children to campaign against drinking and gambling. The Bands of Mercy were similarly meant to encourage a love of animals. [49] Molland writes that some of its members responded with more enthusiasm than Smithies intended, and became known for engaging in direct action against hunters by sabotaging their rifles, although Kim Stallwood of the Animal Rights Network writes he has often heard these stories but has never been able to find solid evidence to support them. 50] Whether the story is true or apocryphal, the idea of the youth group was revived by Ronnie Lee in 1972, when he and Cliff Goodman set up the Band of Mercy as a militant, anti-hunting guerrilla group, which slashed hunters' vehicles' tires and smashed their windows. In 1976, some of the same activists, sensing that the Band of Mercy name sounded too accommodating, founded the Animal Liberation Front. [49]

An Honest Perspective on College Board Essay Samples Ap Literature

An Honest Perspective on College Board Essay Samples Ap Literature This kind of assignment will be able to help you expand your analytical reasoning abilities. There are a sizable number of such companies providing essay writers, but should you pick this path, due diligence is important to make certain that the job will be finished right. The significance of research in persuasive writing may not be overstated. You need to read the example answers to acquire ideas about what are good forms of answers and what are bad forms of answers. Thus, it's not capable of supplying the essential resources. Other goals include the demonstration of terrific research abilities and deep understanding of the subject. Possessing excellent research abilities and selecting a superb topic is vital. Having evidence isn't enough. As soon as your writing is finished, make sure to have an editor review your essay for you. Just comply with the guidelines stated above, and you'll be well on your way to writing an excellent persuasive essay. Only because the introduction is the very first paragraph in your essay doesn't mean that you have to write this paragraph before any other. It should clearly express the topic of the essay along with the writer's position. Weave in your perspective to create your essay unique. By doing this, you're going to be in a position to know for sure what your essay is all about before devising your thesis. It's important to define this sort of academic essay correctly to learn how to compose a persuasive essay. Do not neglect to polish your essay. The simplest approach to compose a great persuasive essay is to chose a topic you're confident in. A persuasive essay should be able to grab the interest of the folks reading it easily. Your persuasive essay will have a lot of paragraphs. The very best persuasive short essays often concentrate on controversial problems. Definitions of College Board Essay Samples Ap Literature The necessity of earning border controls more severe is discussed, as well as some other strategies to create illegal immigrants stay away. A persuasive speech is provided with the goal of persuading the audience to feel a particular way, to take a particular action, or to support a particular view or cause. There are varying views on whether or not a college education is necessary in order to have a prosperous life. While attempting to learn how to compose a persuasive essay step-by-step, students forget about another crucial activity. Writing an essay is a vital role in academe life. State your pri ncipal argument explicitly. In such a situation, a student is needed to decide on an acceptable topic to write about. In your introduction paragraph, it is sufficient to introduce the topic and supply meaningful background info. Such a paragraph might incorporate a concise overview of the ideas to be discussed in body of the paper together with other information related to your paper's argument. Each body paragraph should concentrate on a single argument, called the principal point. The introductory paragraph is perhaps the main paragraph in the essay as it is the initial and possibly last opportunity to produce an effect on the reader. Don't forget that any argumentative essay sample you'll discover on the internet will require a full rewriting in order to prevent plagiarism. The simplest way to influence the form of an essay is to realize the writer's point of view. Topic sentences clearly state the use of the paragraph. The perfect place to bear in mind is a completely free online English writing lab named Purdue OWL. Students shouldn't have to wear uniforms. They should not have to wea r school uniforms because they limit students' ability to express their individuality. They have to write essays depending on the teacher's instructions or their desired style in writing. In general, they are asked to write assignments that take between half an hour and a whole hour. Then you're interested in figuring out how to compose persuasive paper. There aren't any steadfast rules that you will need to adhere to as you write. There's a pool of subjects to pick from. The Definitive Approach to College Board Essay Samples Ap Literature Readers should be able to adapt the standpoint of the author and see from her or his eyes on where he or she's coming from. Ultimately, it acquired the ideal scribendi reviews of me. Evidently, you ought not purposely select a topic that will bore your audience.

Prayer At The United States - 2156 Words

Prayer in some schools may or may not be allowed for various reasons depending on where you are. For example, school-sponsored prayer is allowed in some parts of Europe, but not in the schools in the United States, Canada, Turkey or France, Turkey, and France are strong secular states. Some states do allow prayer, but it must be done privately while some prayer is declared by the state. However, one can pray in the schools in the United States, but not openly in state-run or public schools and as long as the prayer is not disruptive to those around the student; prayer is permitted as a private and personal choice. There have been many attempts to amend the United States Constitution to allow open prayer back into public schools and all other entities where prayer is not allowed. In 1962 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of school-sponsored prayer being unconstitutional, as in the case of Engel v. Vitale. This case involved state officials of t he Broad of Education in the Union Free School District in New York who composed a prayer which was given to the principal and was to be read in each of the classrooms in the presence of the teacher at the beginning of the school day. It reads â€Å"Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our Country†. This was to be a part of the â€Å"Statement on Moral and Spiritual Training in the Schools†. The statement wasShow MoreRelatedPrayer Within Public Schools : The United States Is A Free Country1855 Words   |  8 Pages How can we say that the United States is a free country when we can not openly express our religious beliefs in public? Prayer within public schools has begun a significant debate amongst people in society today. This has been a controversial topic in the United States for approximately over 50 years. 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